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And this is just the beginning of Galileo’s entire career. He pointed his new telescope at the sky. In various discoveries, he discovered four satellites orbiting Jupiter and deliberately named these satellites as Medici stars. Scala Grand Duke Cosimo II de Medici pays tribute. This trick really works – just less than a year after he wrote this letter, Galileo “raised” [span class=”text-remarks” label=”remarks”> (and got rid of it at the same time) Teaching task), also appointed as the natural philosopher of the Medici Palace in Florence[2] .

Galileo knows how to get government officials and court patrons to “pay” for his research. Through the various achievements of Galileo, you will find that he has been involved in different funders, and it is not difficult to find the shadow of some good scientists today. But after 250 years of the Galileo era, there was a very different relationship between government and science.

On the occasion of the creation of Nature by the astronomer Norman Locke in 1869, the relationship between government and science has changed dramatically in many parts of the world.

Imperial Rise

In the mid-19th century, the expanding British Empire occupied about a quarter of the Earth’s land and ruled nearly a quarter of the population. At that time, a number of prominent British politicians, including the former prime minister and future prime minister, were determined to expand the wealth of science and technology in the empire.

In the 1940s, Robert Peel, Benjamin Disraeli, and William Gladstone founded their own Royal Society of Chemistry. They are convinced that focused research in the field of chemistry is good for the country and the empire. In the 1860s, many scholars tried to put this goal on the agenda. Universities across the UK have begun to build laboratories, and there is a common desire behind them – accurate measurements of physical quantities will drive the development of basic science and industry.

Electrification,Telegraph, railway expansion, and large-scale steel production were the characteristics of that era. This phase, which began around 1870, was also called the second industrial revolution. Each of the above requires standardized units and measurements. A group of top scientists led by Maxwell and Tomson (later sealed as Baron of Kelvin) as members of the then high-level government committee, using their electromagnetic Knowledge of knowledge and thermodynamics, working together to overcome problems with transatlantic communications, power standards, navigation, and steam power [3].

In a sense, Britain at the time was actually chasing others. Since the mid-19th century, in order to maintain international status, universities in all German-speaking countries have begun to recruit academic staff in various competitions, and have absorbed a large number of modern talents similar to Galileo for state-funded research institutions. After Prussia defeated France, after the reunification of Germany in early 1871, this talent recruitment model quickly escalated. Under the unified management of the Ministry of Education, in order to achieve industrialization as soon as possible, the German government has invested heavily in all natural sciences [4].

However, Even with such a scale of investment, entrepreneurs such as Ernst von Siemens are still afraid that Germany’s advantages will be overtaken. Under the common lobbying, in 1887, the German government funded the establishment of a new research institution, the Imperial Institute of Technical Physics in Berlin, and was hosted by the physicist Hermann von Helmholtz. long. The mission of the Imperial Institute of Technical Physics is to accelerate the intersection of basic sciences, applied research and industrial development.

A few years after its establishment, the Institute took the lead in evaluating large-scale street lighting projects. To this end, the Institute needs to carefully measure the radiation output of different devices, and the resulting accurate data of the blackbody radiation spectrum transcends the interpretation of mainstream physics theory at the time. Inspired by this, physicist Max Planck had to give up Maxwell’s electromagnetism and took the first step in experimental research on quantum theory. [5].

At the same time, when the Austro-Hungarian Empire was founded in 1867, another war in Prussia prompted the Austro-Hungarian Empire in eastern Germany to carry out government and science.Major reforms. Soon, the powers of the Austro-Hungarian Empire began an unprecedented investment in meteorology and climatology. The aim is to build a larger institutional network in areas where legal, religious and linguistic traditions are highly intertwined, fostering a new sense of shared mission.

To understand the relationship between local climate patterns and large-scale phenomena, universities, museums, and other government-funded research institutions began collecting and standardizing various meteorological data. The initial motivation for this type of research was to unify this vast empire, but the result has spawned a number of very cutting-edge research, such as the “regional climate interaction” that sounds very modern and the “different scale interactions between microclimate and continental climate”. Span class=”text-remarks”>[6].

At that time, Russian Tsar Alexander II was also busy propelling his own modernization. The series of policies he announced from 1861 were later called “big reforms.” He first liberated the serfs, then quickly reformed the national university, and moved the local government and the judicial system.

The huge bureaucracy that was born has provided new opportunities for bold and enterprising scientists, including the chemist Mendeleev. After two years of study in Heidelberg, Germany, Mendeleev returned to his hometown of St. Petersburg in 1861 and taught chemistry at a local university. In 1869, he published the now famous Periodic Table of the Elements, which was also the year of the publication of Nature.

Mendeleev’s subsequent step-by-step rise reflects the growing influence of science and technology in that era. Soon after, Mendeleev became a consultant to the Russian Ministry of Finance and the Department of the Navy, and was eventually promoted to the Director of the Russian Bureau of Weights and Measures and helped Russia establish its own measurement system.

Like Otto von Bismarck and other founding fathers of Germany, Tsar Alexander II is also eager to promote the industrialization of the country. His biggest handwriting is the investment in precision measurement. To this end, he has found the help of scientists with the same ambitions, such as Mendeleev [7].

In the same period, Japan also carried out drastic reforms. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan, which was closed to the country, began to accept the outside world. At that time, the “five affidavits” promulgated by Emperor Meiji claimed to “seek knowledge in the world,Dazhen Huangji. Since then, the Japanese government has begun to invest in the reform of industries such as manufacturing.

Japan has also opened a new public school and sent students to study advanced scientific knowledge abroad. The Japanese central government has also introduced senior scientists from countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States to establish a talent training system in state institutions. Like other countries, Japanese leaders have placed funding research institutions at the forefront of modern state construction [8] .

United States debut

The United States has always been a stubborn outsider, and the good times for scientific research are far from coming. After the assassination of President Lincoln in 1865, the bloodiest conflict in American history came to an abrupt end. (The number of soldiers who died in the American Civil War in 1861-1865 exceeded the United States in World War I, World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War, Afghanistan War, and Iraq War.) Sum.)

Before the 20th century, the US federal government invested very little in scientific research. In fact, some of the major policy makers in the United States have been condemned for their weak science and technology in the First World War.

The history of the United States has always been that education is a matter for the state and local governments, not for the federal government. Therefore, reformers pushing the government to increase investment in research can be said to be tough. Universities and colleges across the United States have slowly paid attention to original research and gradually built the infrastructure needed for laboratories.

The impact of this move is actually very uneven. Even in 1927, the young physicist Isido Rabbi went to Germany to study quantum theory and found that the university library would buy a full-year American journal “Physical Review” (Physical Review). It seems that the content of this journal seems too mediocre and there is no need to subscribe to [9] more frequently. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Roosevelt’s New Deal introduced many reforms, but science is still largely ignored.