This article is from WeChat official account:Economic Observer Book Review (ID: eeobook), author: gold Mountain (East China Normal University, Center for American studies), the original title: “logic and witch hunting witch’s shadow: American literature of the Cold War mentality,” head Figure from: vision China
One day in late May 1692, Ann Foster rode a long pole across oak bushes, across treetops, fields, and fences, flying over mossy swamps and criss-crossing streams. In front of her pole was another woman, Martha Carrier. They fly extremely fast, passing through a large area of land. Normally, this part of the journey requires a good horse to run for three hours.
This picture reminiscent of a Harry Potter movie depicts typical witch activities. What needs to be explained is that this is not a lens from a magical story, but a “fact” that is firmly believed. A few months ago, the witch appeared, disaster struck, and the evil began to spread in the cold New England winter.
In the next half a year, fourteen women, five men, and two dogs were executed for witchcraft. This was the “witch hunt” incident that took place in the early American colony of Massachusetts Bay in 1692.
“Witch Hunt Salem 1692”, written by Pulitzer Prize winner and biographer Stacy Schiff in 2015 and translated and published by Wenhui Publishing House in 2020, describes the entire process of the incident. The “witch hunt” incident that took place in 1692 left a lingering stain in American history. The word “witch hunt” often appeared in everyday vocabulary afterwards and became a term used to refer to An event similar to the logic of the witch hunt.
Three hundred years later, it is very challenging for a non-fiction writer to look back at history and try to restore the original appearance of the past. As the author said in the book, there are not many historical raw materials left about this incident, and there is no trace of the witchcraft trial., Only some original materials are still faintly visible, such as testimony, pleadings, confessions, and two executions. Schiff overcomes numerous difficulties and strives to present the process of “witch hunting” to readers.
Although perhaps from the professional point of view of a historian, her description may still lack some necessary connections, but in terms of the entire process of the event, especially the source of thought behind the “witch hunt” In terms of the trajectory of action, it can be said that the author successfully lent the reader a pair of glasses. Through this pair of glasses, we not only see the details of history, but also see through the logic of “witch hunting”. The logic also points to the traces left by the shadow of the “witch” in later history.
“Witch Hunt”
At the beginning of 1692, several girls in Salem Village, a North American colony, suddenly fell ill. They babbled and the doctor couldn’t diagnose the cause.(According to some latecomers, it is likely that these girls ate wild mushrooms, their nerves were damaged, and they had epilepsy). Some people think that these girls have been harassed by the devil, and the devil cannot control their minds and bodies.
The local government began to organize witch hunts, and the girls began to accuse others. The accused were believed to be substitutes for the devil. As a result, a large number of “witches” began to appear, many of whom were women. Witches flooded like a tide. It is said that more than 700 wizards flew over Massachusetts, and the accused are countless. The witch hunt has clearly become a large-scale event.
Schiff used meticulous brushstrokes to describe the consequences: “The youngest witch is only five years old, and the oldest is nearly 80. The daughter accuses her mother, the mother turns to accuse her grandmother, and the grandmother accuses one A neighbor and a pastor. The wife reported on the husbandHusband, the daughter denounced the father. In addition, the husband dragged his wife into the water, the nephew trapped the aunt, the son-in-law involved the mother-in-law, and the siblings also accused each other. “
The purpose of reporting to each other is to protect oneself and avoid causing harm to the upper body. This may be due to human nature. But such “causes” caused the loss of family affection, the destruction of humanity, and the collapse of morality. This is probably what the accusers and the organizers and implementers of the accusation did not fully anticipate. But then again, in front of the witch hunt, everything can be left aside, because nothing is more important than the witch hunt and exorcism. The witch comes from the devil, is the substitute of the devil, the embodiment of evil, and the greatest enemy.
Only when this enemy is driven away can peace come. If we return to the historical background at that time, we can find that this absolute enemy consciousness is rooted in the hearts of most people. In this case, how can family affection and human affection be compared with the necessity of eradicating the enemy? This is an important logic behind the occurrence of the witch hunt, and the more important basis behind this logic is the belief in the existence of the devil.
The concept of the devil came with the development of Christianity. For a long time in the Middle Ages, exorcism was a common occurrence, and witches were burned alive. Similar incidents have occurred in many countries in Europe, but since the late seventeenth century, the phenomenon of expelling witchcraft and wizards began to decrease.
Relatively speaking, the tradition of witch hunting was transferred to the North American colonies. This should be related to the stricter rules of the Puritans who came from England. The Puritans even more believed that “an omnipotent God needs an omnipotent enemy.” The phrase used by the author of this book to refer to the religious beliefs of 15th century Europe can be better Applied to the Puritans in North America. The behavior of the Puritans is often dominated by a paradox. They traveled across the oceans to avoid religious persecution in the country and to establish a free faith in the New World.
However, once they have laid the foundation for their own beliefs, they will not allow any ideas that contradict their beliefs. The so-called “freedom” only refers to the “freedom” limited to a scope, a thought, and an action.
This kind of thinking logic is clearly reflected in the process of witch hunting. Two influential pastors and thought leaders in New England in the seventeenth century, Inglis Mather and his son Caton Mather, are both strong supporters of the witch hunt and believe in the devil The appearance of shows that God is around, quoting the description of “Bible·Revelation”, predicting that God will come together with the “evil devil”.
This way of thinking juxtaposed the devil and God is not to enhance the power of the devil, but to highlight the existence of God. God is not a single existence. God’s existence is to manifest through the existence of opposites. The stronger the opposite, the stronger the God. This is the result of the natural development of the logic of enemy consciousness. In the eyes of Mather and his son, this logic is even used to point out the special features of New England, that is, the appearance of the devil here illustrates God’s special attachment to this land.
“The appearance of the devil almost marks a kind of glory, further proving that the New Englanders are the chosen people of God.” This is how the author Schiff described the theology of Mather and his son. Obviously, as readers, we can perceive one of the origins of “American Particularism”.
Under this ideological background, the witch hunt will naturally be endowed with sacred religious connotations, and the importance of the witch hunt is self-evident. This is why during the entire witch hunt, the level of the people involved in the trial gradually increased. First, the local priest who had exorcism experience came forward, then the local government officials as the judge, and finally the highest colonial authority. The official’s deputy led the trial process personally. Such a method of trial has its own sufficient reasons. On the one hand, it shows the colonial government’s rule of a unified church and state, and on the other hand, it shows the firm stand of the government and God.
Ordinary people involved in the witch hunt must also take actual actions to show their position. God is everywhere, and the devil is also everywhere. “One of you is a devil.” This sentence is the title of Chapter 4 of this book, and it is also the baton for the exorcism. Anyone can have an affair with the devil. From the origin of theological thinking, North American Puritans were deeply influenced by Calvin, an important figure in the Reformation period. The latter’s destiny believed that everyone is born guilty, the so-called “original sin”, so people must atone for their sins throughout their lives. To get a pass to heaven.
But on the other hand, whether or not to enter heaven is also chosen by God. No one can know God’s options in advance. From this perspective, one’s life is destined to struggle between the firmness and vacillation of faith.
From a psychological point of view, people who are not determined will be easily tempted by the devil. Under this ideological background, people involved in the process of witch hunting have to go through two processes, one is to confess, that is, to confess their interaction with the devil, and the other is to accuse, that is, to refer to the appearance and existence of the devil. In terms of accusation, it refers to the existence of the devil in others. The result of frank confession can give you the opportunity to atone for your sins, to liberate from the relationship with the devil, and to show your determination to be with God. The accusation can make you showShow this determined position.
As the author said in the book: “What kind of evidence can prove witchcraft?’Free and voluntary confession’ is always the gold standard.” Both are the organizers and implementers of the witch hunt. saw. As a result, allegations spread and frank confession prevailed. But there are also those who insist that they have nothing to do with the devil, even if they are accused of not admitting it. On the one hand, these people’s behavior is to contempt the court that represents the justice of God, and on the other hand, they are proved to be the incarnation of the devil. As the “wizards” who were seated, they stepped onto the gallows.
The so-called “settlement” is often based on accusations, and the accusations have no conclusive basis. The court’s trial is based on the reasoning of guilty judgment. The accusation content of the accuser is often one-sided, full of imagination and nightmare content without actual basis, but it is consistent with the behavior and appearance of the witches and wizards at that time. In this case, the judgment of guilt has become a sharp weapon, revealing the “prototype” of the “devil” one after another.
Such jurisprudence is based on the belief in the existence of the devil, and it seems impeccable. But in fact, most of the accusations have nothing to do with witnessing the devil(in fact, the devil is invisible and there is no way to witness), but comes from real life In the eyes of some people, the daily festivals in the neighborhood, the land disputes between the villagers, some people’s incomprehensibility to the behavior of others, and some people in the eyes of some people express outrageous words that are considered blasphemy against God , Some clergymen who are regarded as strong enemies by their colleagues, as well as the poor at the bottom of life, foreigners, non-my race, etc. All these things and people are likely to be the subject of accusations.
Of course, the actual content in real life will not appear in the accusation words. The accuser often makes the accusation in the name of discovering the shadow of the devil on the other party, and the “spots and bad marks” on the other party often turn around It has become the handle of witchcraft performance. Even in some cases, the accused cannot see any signs of dealing with the devil anyway, and the accuser can also point to the devil’s pull of the devil as the most powerful cause of accusation.
When a priest who was sentenced to death came on the gallows, he recited the “Lord’s Prayer” well, which is impossible for a wizard with a devil’s upper body. The wizard’s behavior moved the onlookers so much that there seemed to be someone trying to stop the execution.
At this time, the accuser stood up and said,The devil was next to this person and dictated to him what he recited, while Caton Mather at the scene helped to say that the title of this pastor has never been officially awarded, in other words, this person is actually a Heresy. As a result, the commotion in the audience was calmed down and the execution continued as usual.
All of this turned this witch hunt into a movement, organized, targeted, action-oriented, and result-oriented, which lasted for nine months. Until the governor of the colony discovered that the problem was serious, he issued an order to stop it. Soon afterwards, those who died of injustice were also rehabilitated.
But the historical consequences of what happened will never simply disappear automatically. The logic of the witch hunting movement—from believing in the existence of the devil to the establishment of enemy consciousness, from the occurrence of the chain of actions from confession and accusation to confession, from the inherent sin to the connection with the crime committed by the devil in daily life From the belief in the presence of God and the devil to the establishment of guilt judgment, all of these have had an impact on the course of American history and culture in the future. The logic of witch hunting will often show its shadow in different ways.
Hawthorne
The two writers mentioned by the author of this book: Hawthorne in the 19th century and Miller in the 20th century—that is, two important writers involved in witch hunting in their works. Hawthorne’s famous book “The Scarlet Letter” published in 1850 portrayed an image of a woman who is not afraid of pressure and pursues free love.
The protagonist Hester has become one of the most well-known characters in American literature, but on the other hand, Hester smells of witches, and her rebellious personality and psychology made her almost driven away Out of the Puritan community.
In the novel, Hester has been living on the edge of the village since he came out of prison, which is symbolic in itself, and more historically, the prototype of this image is related to Anne Hutchison , The latter was a famous Puritan female rebel in the colonial period,The unified government drove out the community, and this obviously meant a witch hunt.
Another witch-hunting-related plot in the novel comes from Heist’s original husband, Zilingwoss, who forced Heist to confess his lover. The confession in the logic of the witch hunt is used by Hawthorne in characterization. Obviously, Hawthorne’s image of Hyster went the other way, praising the spirit of “witches”, which was in line with the liberal atmosphere that began to prevail in the United States in the mid-nineteenth century, but what Hawthorne described happened in the seventeenth century The story still brings a heavy atmosphere, which may be regarded as a historical reminder.
Compared with Hawthorne’s twists and turns, the famous playwright Arthur Miller directly aimed at the witch hunt in his works. Miller’s famous play “The Witch of Salem” published in 1953 was adapted from the witch hunt of the same name in history. The characters in the play directly use the names of some people in history. The story The plot that happened also followed the main process of the entire event, so it has a sense of historical reality.
On the other hand, Miller’s historical drama was not only written for history, but actually aimed at the reality of the time, that is, McCarthyism in the early days of the Cold War and the Cold War mentality related to it. Either or other, black or white, absolute enemy consciousness, these are the core content of the Cold War mentality, setting off the anti-communist terrorism in the early days of the Cold War. Miller saw the amazing similarities in history.
The logic of the historical Salem Witch Hunting movement reappeared almost intact in the Cold War atmosphere in the United States. At the hearings of the Committee on Non-American Activities in the United States Congress, acts of frankness, accusations and confessions continued to appear. Under severe pressure, some famous figures in the American intellectual and entertainment circles have confessed to their former U.S. Communist Party members, or their behavior as fellow travelers, and at the same time accused and confessed their colleagues and friends.
Among these people are Miller’s friend, the famous director Kazan, and Miller himself was also implicated because he sympathized with leftists and their actions when he was young. Miller, who was greatly shaken, highlights the logic of witch hunting and its effects more concentratedly in the play. He borrowed the words of the narrator in the play to say: “No matter what goes wrong, our opponents in society, including ourselves, will curse the devil.” The opposite of American ideology is the devil. If you don’t stand with the former, you are the embodiment of the devil.
Danfoss, a villain in the play and the judge of the witch hunt on behalf of the colonial authorities, summed up this logic very accurately: “You should understand, sir, one person is either on the side of defending the court. Either you must standOn the opposition side, there is no middle way.” The logic of the witch hunt more than two hundred years ago is similar to the Cold War mentality of Miller’s era, and the shadow of the “witch” is once again firmly established in reality. Miller This play by is the most performed in all of its plays. This cannot but say that it is closely related to this work’s keen sense and deep criticism.
Arthur Miller and Marilyn Monroe
Literature is a barometer of society. The shadow of the witch in literature reflects a kind of “fascination” in American society for witch hunting. Regardless of the meaning, the “witch hunt” from history has become a feature of American culture.
Simple thinking derived from witch hunting(the essence of cold war thinking), absolute sense of opposition, and the impulse to find a scapegoat, etc. A way of cognition and behavior has allowed the shadow of the “witch” to remain lingering and can be seen everywhere. This may be said to be the greatest enlightenment and vigilance given to us by the book “Witch Hunt Salem 1692”. It is worth repeating. Aftertaste.
This article is from WeChat official account:Economic Observer Book Review (ID: eeobook), author: gold Mountain (East China Normal University, Center for American studies)